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Beliefs

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Large group of people looking at the camera
Alawites celebrating at a festival in Baniyas, Syria during World War II.

Alawites and their beliefs have been described as "secretive"[1][2][3][4][5] (Yaron Friedman, for example, in his scholarly work on the sect, has written that the Alawi religious material quoted in his book came only from "public libraries and printed books" since the "sacred writings" of the Alawi "are kept secret"[a][b]); some tenets of the faith are kept secret from most Alawi and known only to a select few,[8][6] they have therefore been described as a mystical sect.[9]

Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities.[10] Alawites tend to conceal their beliefs (taqiyya) due to historical persecution.[2]

Theology and practices

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Alawite doctrine incorporates Islamic, Gnostic, neo-Platonic, Christian (for example, they celebrate Mass including the consecration of bread and wine) and other elements and has, therefore, been described as syncretic.[11][12]

According to an article that appeared in The Telegraph, the 1995 edition of The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World allegedly describes them as "extremist" Shia whose "religious system separates them from Sunni Muslims."[13]

Reincarnation

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Alawites hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or metempsychosis[14]) before returning to heaven.[3][15] They can be reincarnated as Christians or others through sin and as animals if they become infidels.[3][16] In addition, according to the Israeli Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, they believe that God might have incarnated twice; the first incarnation was Joshua who conquered Canaan, and the second was the fourth Caliph, Ali.[17]

Other beliefs

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Bearded man with sword in his belt
Alawite man in Latakia, early 20th century

Other beliefs and practices include: the consecration of wine in a secret form of Mass performed only by males; frequently being given Christian names; entombing the dead in sarcophagi above ground; observing Epiphany, Christmas[18] and the feast days of John Chrysostom and Mary Magdalene;[19] the only religious structures they have are the shrines of tombs;[20] the book Kitab al-Majmu, which is allegedly a central source of Alawite doctrine,[21][22][23][24] where they have their own trinity, comprising Mohammed, Ali, and Salman the Persian.[25]

In addition, they celebrate different holidays such as Old New Year,[c] Akitu,[d] Eid al-Ghadir, Mid-Sha'ban and Eid il-Burbara.[28] They also believe in intercession of certain legendary saints such as Khidr (Saint George) and Simeon Stylites.[29]

Evolution

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Lexo më tepër: Al-Khasibi, Ibn Nusayr, dhe Schools of Islamic theology § ‘Alawism

Yaron Friedman and many researchers of Alawi doctrine write that the founder of the religion, Ibn Nusayr, did not necessarily believe he was representative of a splinter, rebel group of the Shias, but rather believed he held the true doctrine of the Shias, and most of the aspects that are similar to Christianity are considered more a coincidence and not a direct influence from it, as well as other external doctrines that were actually popular among Shia esoteric groups in Basra in the 8th century. According to Friedman and other scholars, the Alawi movement started as many other mystical ghulat sects with an explicit concentration on an allegorical and esoteric meaning of the Quran and other mystical practices, and not as a pure syncretic sect, though later, they embraced some other practices as they believed all religions had the same Batin core.[30]

Journalist Robert F. Worth argues that the idea that the Alawi religion as a branch of Islam is a rewriting of history made necessary by the French colonialists' abandonment of the Alawi and departure from Syria. Worth describes the "first ... authentic source for outsiders about the religion" (written by Soleyman of Adana – a 19th-century Alawi convert to Christianity who broke his oath of secrecy on the religion) explaining that the Alawi (according to Soleyman) deified Ali, venerated Christ, Muhammad, Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, and held themselves apart from Muslims and Christians, whom they considered heretics.[31]

According to a disputed letter, in 1936, six Alawi notables petitioned the French colonialists not to merge their Alawi enclave with the rest of Syria, insisting that "the spirit of hatred and fanaticism embedded in the hearts of the Arab Muslims against everything that is non-Muslim has been perpetually nurtured by the Islamic religion".[32] However, according to associate professor Stefan Winter, this letter is a forgery.[33] According to Worth, later fatwas declaring Alawi to be part of the Shia community were by Shia clerics "eager for Syrian patronage" from Syria's Alawi president Hafez al-Assad, who was eager for Islamic legitimacy in the face of the hostility of Syria's Muslim majority.[32]

Yaron Friedman does not suggest that Alawi did not consider themselves Muslims, but does state that: Stampa:Blockquote

According to Peter Theo Curtis, the Alawi religion underwent a process of "Sunnification" during the years under Hafez Al Assad's rule, so that Alawites became not Shia, but effectively Sunni. Public manifestation or "even mentioning of any Alawite religious activities" was banned, as were any Alawite religious organizations or "any formation of a unified religious council" or a higher Alawite religious authority. "Sunni-style" mosques were built in every Alawite village, and Alawi were encouraged to perform Hajj.[34]

Opinions on position within Islam

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The Sunni Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, issued a fatwa recognizing them as part of the Muslim community in the interest of Arab nationalism.[35][36] However, other Sunni scholars such as the Syrian historian Ibn Kathir have categorised Alawites as non-Muslim and mushrikeen (polytheists), in their writings;[8][37][38] with Ibn Taymiyya arguably being the most virulent anti-Alawite in his fatwas,[39] accusing them of aiding the Crusader and Mongol enemies of the Muslims.[40] Other Sunni scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, also considered them as non-Muslims.[41] Benjamin Disraeli, in his novel Tancred, also expressed the view that Alawites are not Muslims.[42]

Historically, Twelver Shia scholars (such as Shaykh Tusi) did not consider Alawites as Shia Muslims while condemning their heretical beliefs.[43] Ibn Taymiyyah also said that Alawites are not Muslims.[44]

In 2016, according to several international media reports, an unspecified number of Alawite community leaders released a "Declaration of an Alawite Identity Reform" (of the Alawite community). The manifesto presents Alawism a current "within Islam" and rejects attempts to incorporate the Alawite community into Twelver Shiism.[45][46][47] The document was interpreted as an attempt by representatives of the Alawite community to overcome the sectarian polarisation and to distance themselves from the growing Sunni-Shia divide in the Middle East.[48]

According to Matti Moosa,

The Christian elements in the Nusayri religion are unmistakable. They include the concept of trinity; the celebration of Christmas, the consecration of the Qurbana, that is, the sacrament of the flesh and blood which Christ offered to his disciples, and, most important, the celebration of the Quddas (a lengthy prayer proclaiming the divine attributes of Ali and the personification of all the biblical patriarchs from Adam to Simon Peter, founder of the Church, who is seen, paradoxically, as the embodiment of true Islam).[49]

Barry Rubin has suggested that Syrian leader Hafez al-Assad and his son and successor Bashar al-Assad pressed their fellow Alawites "to behave like 'regular Muslims', shedding (or at least concealing) their distinctive aspects".[50] During the early 1970s, a booklet, al-'Alawiyyun Shi'atu Ahl al-Bait ("The Alawites are Followers of the Household of the Prophet") was published, which was "signed by numerous 'Alawi' men of religion", described the doctrines of the Imami Shia as Alawite.[51] Additionally, there has been a recent movement to unite Alawism and the other branches of Twelver Islam through educational exchange programs in Syria and Qom.[52]

Four women in traditional dress
Alawi women in Syria, early 20th century

Some sources have discussed the "Sunnification" of Alawites under the al-Assad regime.[53] Joshua Landis, director of the Center for Middle East Studies, writes that Hafiz al-Assad "tried to turn Alawites into 'good' (read Sunnified) Muslims in exchange for preserving a modicum of secularism and tolerance in society". On the other hand, Al-Assad "declared the Alawites to be nothing but Twelver Shiites".[53] In a paper, "Islamic Education in Syria", Landis wrote that "no mention" is made in Syrian textbooks (controlled by the Al-Assad regime) of Alawites, Druze, Ismailis or Shia Islam; Islam was presented as a monolithic religion.[54]

Ali Sulayman al-Ahmad, chief judge of the Baathist Syrian state, has said: Stampa:Blockquote

Population

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Map showing the distribution (2012) of Alawites in the Northern Levant.

Syria

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Alawites have traditionally lived in the Coastal Mountain Range, along the Mediterranean coast of Syria. Latakia and Tartus are the region's principal cities. They are also concentrated in the plains around Hama and Homs. Alawites also live in Syria's major cities, and are estimated at about 11 percent of the country's population[4][55][56][57]

There are four Alawite confederations — Kalbiyya, Khaiyatin, Haddadin, and Matawirah – each divided into tribes based on their geographical origins or their main religious leader,[8][58] such as Ḥaidarīya of Alī Ḥaidar, and Kalāziyya of Sheikh Muḥammad ibn Yūnus from the village Kalāzū near Antakya.[59] Those Alawites are concentrated in the Latakia region of Syria, extending north to Antioch (Antakya), Turkey, and in and around Homs and Hama.[60]

Before 1953, Alawites held specifically-reserved seats in the Syrian Parliament, in common with all other religious communities. After that (including the 1960 census), there were only general Muslim and Christian categories, without mention of subgroups, to reduce sectarianism (taifiyya).

Turkey

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Shiko gjithashtu: Religious minorities in Turkey dhe Shia Islam in Turkey
Adolescent boy standing in front of younger children
Alawite children in Antioch (now in Turkey), 1938

To avoid confusion with the ethnic-Turkish and Kurdish Alevis, the Alawites call themselves Arap Alevileri ("Arab Alevis") in Turkish. The term Nusayrī, previously used in theological texts, has been revived in recent studies. In Çukurova, Alawites are known as Fellah and Arabuşağı (although the latter is considered offensive) by the Sunni population. A quasi-official name used during the 1930s by Turkish authorities was Eti Türkleri ("Hittite Turks"), to conceal their Arabic origins. Although this term is obsolete, it is still used by some older people as a euphemism.

In 1939, the Alawites accounted for some 40 percent of the population of the province of Iskenderun. According to French geographer Fabrice Balanche, relations between the Alawites of Turkey and the Alawites of Syria are limited. Community ties were broken by the Turkification policy and the decades-long closure of the Syria-Turkey border.[61]

The exact number of Alawites in Turkey is unknown; there were 185,000 in 1970.[62] As Muslims, they are not recorded separately from Sunnis. In the 1965 census (the last Turkish census where informants were asked their mother tongue), 185,000 people in the three provinces declared their mother tongue as Arabic; however, Arabic-speaking Sunnis and Christians were also included in this figure. Turkish Alawites traditionally speak the same dialect of Levantine Arabic as Syrian Alawites. Arabic is preserved in rural communities and in Samandağ. Younger people in the cities of Çukurova and İskenderun tend to speak Turkish. The Turkish spoken by Alawites is distinguished by its accents and vocabulary. Knowledge of the Arabic alphabet is confined to religious leaders and men who have worked or studied in Arab countries.

Alawites demonstrate considerable social mobility. Until the 1960s, they were bound to Sunni aghas (landholders) around Antakya and were poor. Alawites are prominent in the sectors of transportation and commerce and a large, professional middle class has emerged. Male exogamy has increased, particularly by those who attend universities or live in other parts of Turkey. These marriages are tolerated; however, female exogamy (as in other patrilineal groups) is discouraged.

Alawites, like Alevis, have strong leftist political beliefs. However, some people in rural areas (usually members of notable Alawite families) may support secular, conservative parties such as the Democratic Party. Most Alawites feel oppressed by the policies of the Presidency of Religious Affairs in Turkey (Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı).[63][64]

Lebanon

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There are an estimated 40,000[65][66] Alawites in Lebanon, where they have lived since at least the 16th century.[67] They are one of the 18 official Lebanese sects; due to the efforts of their leader, Ali Eid, the Taif Agreement of 1989 gave them two reserved seats in Parliament. Lebanese Alawites live primarily in the Jabal Mohsen neighbourhood of Tripoli and in 10 villages in the Akkar District, and are represented by the Arab Democratic Party.[68][69][70] Their Mufti is Sheikh Assad Assi.[71] The Bab al-Tabbaneh–Jabal Mohsen conflict between pro-Syrian Alawites and anti-Syrian Sunnis has affected Tripoli for decades.[72]

There are also about 3,900 Alawites living in the village of Ghajar, which is located on the border between Lebanon and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. In 1932, the residents of Ghajar were given


the option of choosing their nationality, and overwhelmingly chose to be a part of Syria, which has a sizable Alawite minority.[73] Before the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, the residents of Ghajar were counted in the 1960 Syrian census.[74] According to Joshua Project, after Israel captured the Golan Heights from Syria, and after implementing Israeli civil law in 1981, the Alawite community chose to become Israeli citizens.[75] However, according to Al-Marsad, Alawites were forced to undergo a process of naturalisation.[76]

Language

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Alawites in Syria speak a special dialect (part of Levantine Arabic) famous for the usage of letter (qāf), but this feature is also shared with neighbering non-Alawites villages such as Idlib. Due to foreign occupation of Syria, the same dialect is characterized by multiple borrowings, mainly from Turkish and then French, especially terms used for imported inventions such as television, radio, elevator, etc.

See also

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Notes

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Stampa:Noteslist

References

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  5. ^ Gabim referencash: Etiketë <ref> e pavlefshme; asnjë tekst nuk u dha për refs e quajtura YFNAIRHI2010:68
  6. ^ a b Friedman, Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs, 2010: p.xii
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  28. ^ a b "20 معلومة قد لا تعرفها عن العلويين" [20 facts you may not know about Alawites]. dkhlak.com (në arabisht). 21 korrik 2016.{{cite web}}: Mirëmbajtja CS1: Datë e përkthyer automatikisht (lidhja)
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  30. ^ "Friedman, The Nusayris-Alawis, An introduction to the religion, history and identity: p.223–238" (PDF). {{cite web}}: Mungon ose është bosh parametri |language= (Ndihmë!)
  31. ^ Worth, A Rage for Order, 2016: p.82
  32. ^ a b Worth, A Rage for Order, 2016: p.85
  33. ^ Winter, Stefan (qershor 2016). "The Asad Petition of 1936: Bashar's Grandfather Was Pro-Unionist By Stefan Winter". Joshualandis. {{cite web}}: Mungon ose është bosh parametri |language= (Ndihmë!)Mirëmbajtja CS1: Datë e përkthyer automatikisht (lidhja)
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  36. ^ Me'ir Mikha'el Bar-Asher; Gauke de Kootstra; Arieh Kofsky (2002). The Nuṣayr−i-ʻalaw−i Religion: An Enquiry into Its Theology and Liturgy. BRILL. fq. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-12552-0. {{cite book}}: Mungon ose është bosh parametri |language= (Ndihmë!)
  37. ^ "Syria crisis: Deadly shooting at Damascus funeral". BBC News. 18 shkurt 2012. {{cite news}}: Mungon ose është bosh parametri |language= (Ndihmë!)Mirëmbajtja CS1: Datë e përkthyer automatikisht (lidhja)
  38. ^ Abd-Allah, Umar F., Islamic Struggle in Syria, Berkeley : Mizan Press, c1983, pp. 43–48
  39. ^ Pipes 1992, p. 163: "the Nusayris are more infidel than Jews or Christians, even more infidel than many polytheists. They have done greater harm to the community of Muhammad than have the warring infidels such as the Franks, the Turks, and others. To ignorant Muslims they pretend to be Shi'is, though in reality they do not believe in God or His prophet or His book...Whenever possible, they spill the blood of Muslims...They are always the worst enemies of the Muslims...war and punishment in accordance with Islamic law against them are among the greatest of pious deeds and the most important obligations."
  40. ^ Matti Moosa (1987). Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse University Press. fq. 269–70. ISBN 978-0-8156-2411-0. {{cite book}}: Mungon ose është bosh parametri |language= (Ndihmë!)
  41. ^ Pipes 1992, ff. 160–161: "apostacize in matters of blood, money, marriage, and butchering, so it is a duty to kill them." [Al-Ghazali]"
  42. ^ Pipes 1992, p. 162
  43. ^ Barfi, Barak (24 janar 2016). "The Real Reason Why Iran Backs Syria". The National Interest. {{cite web}}: Mungon ose është bosh parametri |language= (Ndihmë!)Mirëmbajtja CS1: Datë e përkthyer automatikisht (lidhja)
  44. ^ The Nusayris are more infidel than Jews or Christians, even more infidel than many polytheists. They have done greater harm to the community of Muhammad than have the warring infidels such as the Franks, the Turks, and others. To ignorant Muslims they pretend to be Shi’is, though in reality they do not believe in God or His prophet or His book…Whenever possible, they spill the blood of Muslims…They are always the worst enemies of the Muslims…war and punishment in accordance with Islamic law against them are among the greatest of pious deeds and the most important obligations". – Ibn Taymiyyah, as quoted by Pipes 1992, p. 163.
  45. ^ "SYRIA – The Alawite 'Identity Reform' | The Maghreb and Orient Courier" (në anglisht). Marrë më 2020-04-14.
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  49. ^ Moosa, Matti. Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects (1988). quoted in "Storm Over Syria", Malise Ruthven. nybooks.com 9 June 2011
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  51. ^ Abd-Allah, Umar F. (1983). Islamic Struggle in Syria. Berkeley: Mizan Press. fq. 43–48. ISBN 0-933782-10-1. {{cite book}}: Mungon ose është bosh parametri |language= (Ndihmë!)
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